At least 95% of the research into Afro Cuban music has never been published. There are detailed interviews & thesis that are amazing in Cuban Universities.
Use several of the major search engines with your question or subject. Visit the newsgroups rec.music.afro-latin ask your question there. Visit your local & University library.
This video is the best English language series video on Latin music. 3 videos from Africa to the Caribbean to the USA.
Septeto Nacional de Ignacio Piñeiro
The following base historical information comes from the Conjunto Folkórico Nacional de Cuba historical records & the Center for Cuban Studies.
This information & additional resources I have provided has been used by reporters from the LA Times & other newspapers. This page is also book marked by 6 USA University Music Departments for Hispanic music history so if you have a web page on this subject please email me so I can link to you. I do not mind if you disagree with me so long as your site has factual information on it that can be checked by people.
This page can be checked by anyone going to their University Music Department History section. I will be happy to change anything on this page if anyone can refer me to a historical fact that can be checked that contradicts anything on this page.
Historical links & books on this subject are listed at the bottom of the page. This page is really limited to Cuban Salsa as I have not finished yet. Links to New York Salsa History & other countries hopefully will be coming.
Due to the national pride & money involved in Salsa music & it′s history it is hard at times to get a true picture. It also does not help when musician′s change their stories to further their own aims. I suggest you look at all the links here & try to get a general feel for what may of occurred. It is impossible to write a full & clear picture in such a small article as mine. The two points I am trying to make is that the term & meaning of Salsa has a history from 30′s Cuba. It also has changed its meaning from this period.
Also that there is a practical difference between the Salsa dance step & the Mambo dance step.
One of the first Cuban reactions to the term Salsa as a term for New York′s Latin music came from Machito, ″There′s nothing new about Salsa, it is just the same old music that was played in Cuba for over fifty years. And they play it badly.″
Celia Cruz the Queen of Salsa says, ″Salsa is just Cuban music with a new name″. Celia was performing Salsa in Cuba in the 1950′s.
On Musical Style.
The musical style of Salsa & term was created at least 6 years before Mambo.
The first Cuban reference to the musical Style/Word of Salsa was first recorded by Igancio Piñeiro in the 1933 record song Echale Salsita. (1) This song was written in 1929. There are around 60 Salsa standards which every Cuban Salsero learns
for a descarga situation. Echale Salsita & Suavecito by Igancio Piñeiro are two of them.
Igancio Piñeiro was using the term (Salsa) to imply the pleasure produced by hearing a number of instruments played & combined harmoniously.
The important of this song to Afro Cuban music is found on any major Cd listing the most important Cuban music. Many of today′s top Cuban Salsa singers like Celia Cruz were friends & played with Igancio Piñeiro.
Latinos, especially Caribbean′s, have always used culinary terms to describe their music.
″Sabrosa″, ″Caliente″, ″Dulce Melodia″, ″A Comer!″. Musicians nowadays exclaim that a chart (a musical arrangement) ″tiene mucha comida″ when it′s difficult to play.
Igancio Piñeiro band played guajira, rumba, tango-congo, sones, montunos.
Many of today′s top Salsa tunes are Son music
The Mambo was first created by Israel Lopez ″Cachao″ & his brother Orestes Lopez in 1937. Machito who was in Cuba at this time believed the bass riffs of Cachao were the beginning of the Mambo. (2)
The first tune called Mambo was played on radio in 1938. Mambo was created from the Cuban danzón.
Orestes registered the copyright in 1938.
The Lopez brothers were in a band La Maravilla del Siglo de Fernando Collazo which was a danzón band at this time.
Mambo was not a popular style with dancers until the inserts of American pop standards ( As Time goes by or Over the
Rainbow are two) into the tunes. They also experimented with the jitterbug rhythm around 1943. If fact the band was virtually blackballed. It was not until after 1939 when they added repetitious phrases which meant that dancers could move
without losing a beat that the band became Cuba′s most popular & most typical orchestra. They played 365 days a year,
sometimes 2 or 3 engagements a day for several years.
On Dance Style.
Cuban Salsa looks nothing like the Salsa done in the USA today. The USA Salsa I believe is from Puerto Rico style Salsa which is created from Mambo (3)
¡Salsa a la Cubana!: A Demonstration Video of Cuban style salsa dancing from the source ...
http://www.salsaville.com/This video shows Cuban Salsa as it is danced today.
The Cuban Salsa style was created from Son.
Son has been around since the 1550′s but it′s present form dates from the turn of the century. (4)
On learning to dance in Cuba one would normally go Son - Salsa - Mambo. All three have a different style & steps.
The Mambo style was created from the son/ danza styles = danzón..
The Puerto Rican′s also appear to include elements of the yambú, a rumba style into the historical influence of their Mambo/ Salsa style. (5)
The danza style had to incorporate elements of the son in the 1920′s to survive becoming danzón.. (6)
The Mambo was an important innovation as it took the danzón from the upper-class & put it into the dance halls of the common worker.
The "Mambo" dance is attributed to Perez Prado who introduced it at La Tropicana night-club in Havana in 1943. It first appeared in the United States in New York′s Park Plaza Ballroom - a favorite hangout of enthusiastic dancers from Harlem. The Mambo gained its excitement in 1947 at the Palladium and other renowned places such as The China Doll, Havana Madrid and Birdland.
A modified version of the "Mambo" (the original dance had to be toned down due to the violent acrobatics) was presented to the public at dance studios, resort hotels, and at night-clubs in New York and Miami. Success was on the agenda. Mambo happy dancers soon became known affectionately as "Mambo nicks".
The Mambo is enjoying a renewed popularity due to a number of films featuring the dance as well as a man named Eddie Torres. Eddie is a New York dance pro and Mambo fanatic who has launched a crusade to make sure the dance reigns in the ballroom once again. Torres has become the leading exponent of the style, steadily building a reputation as a dancer, instructor, and choreographer. He has become known as the ″Mambo King of Latin Dance″.
Torres is determined to reintroduce dancers to what he believes is the authentic night-club style of mambo dancing, which in the 1990′s is increasingly known as Salsa.
(Note; This common myth from the Latin Beat magazine)
Tito Puente says ″Salsa is something you eat″ That what the musicians are playing is MAMBO.
″Listen to Hansel Martinez, Gloria Estefan, Hector Tricoche, Willy Chirino, etc. They are playing Charanga, Montunos,
Son, Bombas as Salsa. A third of the Salsa sound is coming from Venezuela & Colombia with bands like Guyacan, Niche, Oscar D′Leon, Raises, etc. Another third of the sound is coming from Miami like Hansel Martrinez, Willy Chirino,
Gloria, Albita, etc., The NY sound with guys like Tito Nieves, Tony Vega, the Ruiz brothers, Cheo, do play a harder edge Mambo sound but then NYers like Mark Anthony & La India go more toward the Miami Sound. A big selling album
by any of these bands though tends to have elements from all three sounds.
Even Tito′s records from the 80′s are different from the sound he is playing today. So which is Mambo? His sound last decade or his sound last week? The issue is that even the best Mambo bands are going to the hottest
Salsa arrangers like Sergio George; While both Salsa and Mambo are clave based rhythms, Tito for example is playing (if I can label it) New York/Puerto Rican style Mambo. That accounts for 50 % of the ″salsa″ Top 40 sales charts. The other half of the sales charts are from Salsa Tropical which is Cuban based with influences from Columbia, Venezuela and the D.R.
The Tropical sound draws from Charanga, Son Montuno, Guanguaco, and yes Mambo. It is not one rhythm it is several.
In the case of Tito Puente no one is putting him down. It′s a case of Mambo musicians wanting to keep playing their own style and hang on to the coattails of the musicians who are playing at the fore front of the newer styles. It′s a cash money thing. By saying Salsa doesn′t exist that it is really Mambo, then if I am the king of Mambo, then I am the best at the music everyone wants to hear″. (7)
(Note; This common myth on the Venezuela Radio Station as the birth place for Salsa. What we are talking about here is the naming of this type of music as Salsa NOT the birth of this musical form.
The story goes that the music began to be described popularly as musica SALSA by a Venezuelan DJ named Phidias Danilo Escalona of Radio Difusora Venezuela in 1967. After interviewing Ricardo Ray who was present with his band he asked him what song he would be performing. Richie says it and the song had the word ″Salsa″ in it.
Phidias says, ″What was that? Say again?...″.
Richie Ray responded, ″SALSA y [blah blah]...&Pprime;.
So the DJ repeats over the microphone over the air, ″Ricardo Ray con su Salsa!!!...″.
Willie Rosario to this day contends that in the mid-late 60s when he traveled to Venezuela, the popular music radio show of the day was called LA HORA DE LA SALSA. Hosted by none other than this guy, Phidias Danilo Escalona.
Phidias Danilo Escalona was Tito RodrÃguez′ compadre...He was precisely the DJ who helped Tito Rod get a foothold in Venezuela and become popular over there when he was alive.
All of this has been corroborated by Tito Rodriguez, Jr., Jimmy Sabater and trumpeter Angel Lebron, who is the son and nephew of the two bandleaders known as The Lebron Brothers who were big in Venezuela & Colombia after making a name for themselves in NYC and is the older brother of current RMM singer, Corinne.
If you read the book EL LIBRO DE LA SALSA by Cesar Miguel Rondon, the dude points to Venezuela as the first market to start calling this music SALSA. He credits the first record that used the term on it′s album cover was ″Llegó la Salsa (I play Salsa)″ by the venezuelan band, FEDERICO Y SU COMBO in 1967.
....HOWEVER, I don′t take info for granted, so I did a little background check and while the Venezuelan DJ story holds weight, despite the conversation between Richie Ray and the DJ being hearsay, there in fact WAS a Radio Show called LA HORA DE LA SALSA in Venezuela during the late 60s, CMR′s assertion in his book that Federico y su Combo was the first record to have the term SALSA on it is false.
El Septeto Nacional ″Echale Salsita″ (written by Ignacio Piñero-the late 20s)
Charlie Palmieri′s Orq. Duboney ″Salsa Na′Má″ (written by Johnny Pacheco-1963)
Charanga Moderna′s ″Salsa y Dulzura″(written by Ray Barreto -1966)
The Joe Cuba Sextette′s ″Cocinando″(written by Joe Cuba-1966)whose lyrics read ″la salsa ya está para usté probar″ in relation to the SABOR of the music.
The Cesta All Stars ″El Quinto De Beethoven″ (written by Al Santiago-1966) where if you listen closely, near the end of the song, you can hear a young Cheo Feliciano scream at the top of his lungs, ″TE LO DIJE QUE LLEGO EL TREN DE LA SALSA!!!″ (Translation: The Train with SALSA has arrived.)
And countless others BEFORE 1967.
So it′s up to you to decide for yourself where the truth lies.
Yet based on interviews and conversations with many of the figures who were present when this music began to be developed and known as Salsa, neither Richie Ray, nor Hector LaVoe, nor Joe Bataan, nor The Lebron Bros., nor Johnny Colón, nor Willie Colón, nor Palmieri and many others living and playing in NYC, ever listened to or knew that Danilo the DJ from Venezuela existed.
But that′s the story on who was the first to begin calling all of the rythmical and musical forms, SALSA
As I am not from New York nor an American I do not know much about the rebirth of the term, ″Salsa″, in the 1970′s. But
one name I keep reading/ hearing about is Larry Harlow co-producer of the hit movie ′Our Latin Thing ( Nuestra Cosa) & as a member of the Fania all Stars & Orchestra Harlow. The Golden Age of Salsa Music with Larry Harlow
One must also give credit to "Salsa", the movie with Robby Rosa. It was a great cross-over hit. It introduced "Salsa", to a non-hispanic world.
( Copyright Picture by Izzy Sanabria )
This is the best site on New York Salsa from the 70′s & how the term Salsa came to be reborn & it′s change of meaning to what is understood by Salsa today.
From the Message Boards by Observer (jb)
I′ve been following the discussion about the origin of salsa with Musico, New Yorker, etc. I agree with a lot that′s been mentioned. I agree with the classification that many give to salsa. Salsa is not one particular rhythm, but a fusion of AfroCaribbean rhythms (most of which are Afro-Cuban) with other modern elements such as jazz, r&b, funk, etc. These styles can be alternated and interchanged at the musicians′ will. Many salsa songs may start out with a ″bolero″ beat, then turn into ″guaracha″. Or, who hasn′t heard a tune that starts out as a ″guaguanco′″, then turns into a standard "salsa". And what about the sections of plena or bomba. It doesn′t really matter in which country the rhythms developed (same mix of European/African elements). A common factor is still Africa (cuban styles, bomba/plena de Borinquen, afroamerican jazz/r&b,etc.) True, the term salsa was a word that arose later to describe a fusion of rhythms that already existed (with additions and modifications). Nuyoricans did the world a musical favor by preserving and updating the afro-cuban rhythms. They preserved and promoted salsa, and look where salsa is today. But, this is because the Cubans were forced out of the picture in ′62. Before then, they were in the picture. Still, a lot of people try to say that Nuyoricans & Puertoricans made the music better. I agree, but this doesn′t mean that Cubans were incapable of improving their own music. The core of salsa is the Afro-Cuban ″son″. Many styles such as guajira & guaracha developed from the son. As far as I know, mambo is a fusion of ″danzon″, ″son″, and big band jazz. The styles progressed from one to another. When the Nuyoricans & Puertoricans (on the island) began to preserve those rhythms, remember that the rhythms were still in an early-developing stage. Why should it surprise anyone that they improved the rhythms? That should be obvious. This all happened over a period of decades, not overnight. With almost 40 years, the rhythms should be better. That′s what happens over time. Plus, I′ve heard many traditional Cuban guarachas and sones that resemble modern day Salsa closely. True, there is an improvement, but it′s not a huge dramatic difference. It has to do with additions and modifications, not a complete change in the basic structure of the son/guaracha. And what about modern Cuban music. Aside from the traditional rhythms that are still played, the Cuban′s experimentation has led to some seriously
progressive music that′s over the heads of many traditionalists. It shows that they′re capable of updating their own rhythms, and they have. Los Van Van, Adalberto Alvarez, Isaac Delgado, Bamboleo ... they all show that the Cubans haven′t exactly been sitting still. Individually, Mambo, Pachanga, Danzon, Rumba, and Bomba may not be ″Salsa″, but they definitely are some of the styles that make up Salsa. ″Salsa″ may have started in NY, but it was strongly based on rhythms that have been around for a long time. We should appreciate the positive contributions that many cultures have made to the music. I, for one, am grateful. And no one should question the great contribution that the Puertoricans from NY and from the island have made to the development of ″Salsa″.
Re: The debate as to who make the first Salsa = Sauce. Try Gershwin in his Cuban Overture in 1932. Gershwin used the first four bars of Piñeiro′s Echale Salsita ( put a bit of sauce in it ). One paragraph go′s like this:
″In Catalina I found something unexpected
a voice that cried out like this:
put a little sauce on daddy,
put a little sauce on daddy!″
Just for the record the ″Pollo en Salsa″ recipe dates from the 1700.
M. Tullius Cicero, Orationes: Pro Scauro (ed. Albert Clark), section 6:
″.....qua re quae potest, quamvis salsa ista Sarda fuerit, ulla libidinis aut amoris esse suspicio?″
Can anyone translate this from Latin?
(1) The song is a very slow Salsa but the beat & rhythm is there. I have a copy of this song. I have tried to dance Mambo steps as well as Cuban Salsa steps to this song & the Salsa steps work best. The song is in Son Pregón style. My music album is dated 1933. Amazon.com has a Cd with this song on it as well as a online clip of it.
Yo Soy Del Son A La Salsa Cd
(2) There is no mention of Arseñio′s group, his son montuno, or diablo until after 1946. Also in 1954 Benetin Bustillo,
one of Arseñio′s trumpeters admitted to copying Arcaño′s figurations. The Lopez brothers were in Arcaño′s band at this
time.
(3) Cuban Salsa is starting to become more Mambo based with the influence of tourist′s in the last 10 years from Europe.
I must point out that Cuban′s have always done Mambo since the 1940′s. But have always been able to separate the two dance styles. Timba Brava style is now the favorite ″Salsa″ style in Cuba at the moment. It has it′s own dance steps as well.
(4) This is the reason many people believe that Salsa was around then. Many people dance Salsa to Son tunes when Son has
it′s own dance steps.
(5) The Puerto Rican′s also are important as they appear to have combined the Salsa & Mambo steps into one dance.
If one learns to dance Salsa today. Traditional Salsa steps are still usually taught but they are quickly by passed by the Mambo
steps.
(6) Note: The Cuban danza also looks nothing like the European danza.
(7) Enio & Robert Cordoba
Web links:
For some reason Salsaweb.com has removed their excellent page of Salsa history? I do not know why.
http://www.laventure.net/tourist/mambo.htm
http://silvia.bmc.uu.se/~lisa/MAMBO.html
http://www.eijkhout.net/rad/dance_specific/salsa.html
http://www.chez.com/abri/a/lex.htm Dictionary of Salsa
http://www.centralhome.com/ballroomcountry/mambo.htm
http://members.aol.com/perezprado/index.htm
http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/1033/queeni.html
http://www.dancexcitement.com/history_of_salsa_discussion.htm
http://www.negia.net/~webbook/web/weblern2/Albertos/salsa.htm
http://jazzatlincolncenter.org/jazz/note/cuba.html
http://aachen.heimat.de/salsa/whatis.htm
http://members.aol.com/musicsalsa/salsa.htm This is one very large Salsa link site. A must visit.
Bibliography
Important some of these books are only available in Cuba or Europe. It also will take me a while to finish a detailed list. I am working on this list when I have spare time. Once this list is big enough I will put it on a separate page so it is easier to print out
If you want the most up to date detailed history on Cuba musical style & dance I suggest you buy any book by;
Rebeca Mauleón. My family in Cuba says it is the best recent English book on Cuban music.
Other books & links will be added.
http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0961470194/salsainstruction
Book and CD Package (Sher Music 52800), Released 1999;
Los Instrumentos De LA Musica Afrocubana, 1952 (2 Volume Set by Fernando Ortiz
Note: Very expensive books $99.00 but one of the best. Only in Spanish.
DR. OLAVO ALéN RODRÃGUEZ
From AfroCuban Music To Salsa (BOOK & CD PACKAGE Piranha)
http://www.descarga.com/cgi-bin/db/17490.60
Is son the father of salsa? How many rumba styles are there? Did the French brought danzón to Cuba? How lively is the AfroCuban musical tradition? Your mind may yet wonder...Well, relax! The book ″From AfroCuban Music to Salsa″, combining the accuracy of the ethnomusicologist with the passion of the music educator, will provide you with all the answers. Dr. Olavo Alén Rodriguez has succeeded in presenting the complexity of Cuban popular music in a rich synthesis of inspiring work. A CD is included to highlight the text, with 26 musical jewels chosen from the immense Cuban patrimony, as recorded and preserved by the CIDMUC archive in Havana. With a preface by Alessio Surian. - 180 pages - CD total playing time: 76:38
Cultura Afrocubana por Jorge Castellanos & Isabel Castellanos. Miami, Fla., U.S.A.: Ediciones Universal, 1988. Colección Ebano y canela 1. El negro en Cuba, 1492-1844 -- 2. El negro en Cuba, 1845-1959 -- 3. Las religiones y las lenguas -- 4. Letras, música, arte.
Note: The book is only a small booklet about the size of a Cd. Just a bit wider.
Cuba: I Am Time - 4 CD Set
http://www.descarga.com/cgi-bin/db/16072.10
A four CD set with a 112 page book on the history of Cuban music.
The separate cds are entitled CUBAN INVOCATIONS, CANTAR EN CUBA, BAILAR CON CUBA and CUBANO JAZZ.
Note: The above package is recommended.
El Libro De La Salsa: Cronica De La Música Del Caribe Urbano
http://www.descarga.com/cgi-bin/db/17551.50
This is the much sought-after "bible" of salsa music. Published in Venezuela, this in-depth 340 page book chronicles the evolution and rise of salsa.
Nationalizing Blackness: Afrocubanismo And Artistic Revolution In Havana, 1920-1940
http://www.descarga.com/cgi-bin/db/17640.50
http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0822956454/salsainstruction
1. Afrocubans and National Culture 2. Minstrelsy in Havana: Music and Dance of the Teatro Vernáculo 3. Comparsas and Carnival in the New Republic: Four Decades of Cultural Controversy 4. Echale Salsita: Sones and Musical Revolution
5. Nationalizing Blackness: The Vogue of Afrocubanismo 6. The Rumba Craze: Afrocuban Arts as International Popular Culture
7. The Minorista Vanguard: Modernism and Afrocubanismo.
http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0811825663/salsainstruction
Musica : Salsa, Rhumba, Merengue, and More
Musica! charts the vast territory of this lively Latin heritage, which began in Cuba and spread throughout the Caribbean and into North and South America. Illustrated with contemporary and vintage photos, Musica! features a gallery of legendary musical performers, plus sections on the musical styles and dances including the rumba, mambo, cha-cha, and merengue. A discography and bibliography complete this comprehensive story of Latin America′s extraordinary rhythmic tradition.
Note: Large collection of good photo′s.
http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0195121015/salsainstruction
The Latin Tinge : The Impact of Latin American Music on the United States by John Storm Roberts
http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0941677354/salsainstruction
Salsa : The Rhythm of Latin Music (Performance in World Music Series, No. 3) by Charley Gerard, Larry W. Smith (Editor), Marty Sheller, Lawrence Aynesmith (Editor)
Latin Beat Magazine
Sadie, Stanley : The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, London, 1980
Westrup & Harrison : The New College Encyclopedia of Music, NY, 1960
Most are available only in Spanish & only available in Cuba. Some are Centuries old
Abad, Fray Iñigo : Historia de la Isla de Puerto Rico, 1782 (yes 1782)
Abadie, Maurice : Afrique Centrale La Colonie du Niger, Paris, 1927
Acosta, Leonardo: Del tambor al sintetizador, Cuba, 1983
: Música y descolonización, Cuba, 1982
Afrocuba : una antologÃa de escritos cubanos sobre raza, polÃtica y cultura / Pedro Pérez Sarduy, Jean Stubbs, compiladores. San Juan : Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, 1998
(Also available in English as:
AfroCuba : an anthology of Cuban writing on race, politics and culture, by Pedro Perez Sarduy and Jean Stubbs. NY, USA
Afro-Cuban religious experience : cultural reflections in narrative / Eugenio Matibag. Publisher: Gainesville, Fla. : University Press of Florida, c1996.
Aguado, Simon : Entremés del platillo, Madrid, 1599
Alén, Olavo: La música de las sociedades de tumba francesa en Cuba, Cuba, 1986
Amira, John & Steven Cornelius : The music of Santeria, 1992
Antolitia, Gloria : Dos siglos de música, Cuba 1984
Aretz, Isabel : América Latina en su música, México, Siglo veintiuno, México, 1977.
Aróstegui, Natalia Bolivar : Los orishas en Cuba, Cuba 1990
Ayala, Dr. Cristobal Diaz : Música Cubana- Del Areyto a la Nueva Trova, Puerto Rico, 1981
″Del Areito al Nueva Trova″ or his latest, ″Cuando Salà de La Habana.″He also has an interresting one about the history of Pregon in Latin American music, called something like ″Si te quieres por un pico divertir...El pregon en La Musica Latinoamericana″.
Bastide, Roger : Las Américas negras, las civilizaciones africanas en el Nuevo Mundo, 1969.
Beltrán, Gonzalo Aguirre : La población negra de México, Tierra Firme, Mexico
Billiet, Huib : De klank van de hauten druppel; muziek op Cuba, 1988.
Bolivar, Aróstegui, Natalia : Los orichas en Cuba, 1990
Bramly, Serge : Macumba, New York, 1979
Brouwer, Leo : La música, lo cubano y la innovación, Cuba, 1989
Cabrera, Lydia : El monte, 1989.
Carpentier, Alejo : La Música en Cuba, Cuba, 1989
Casanova, Oliva, Ana Victoria : Problemática organológica cubana, 1988
Casedemunt, Tomas : Son de Cuba
Chase Gilbert : The music of Spain, New York, 1959
Collazo, Bobby : La última noche que pasé contigo, 1987.
Contrapunteo cubano del tabaco y el azúcar / Fernando Ortiz ; prólogo y cronologÃa, Julio Le Reverend. Caracas : Biblioteca Ayacucho, [1978]
Contreras, Félix : Porque tienen filin, Cuba, 1989
Diaz Ayala, Cristóbal : Cuba canta y baila 1989-1925, 1994.
Diaz Ayala, Cristóbal : Música cubana, 1981.
De León, Carmela : Sindo Garay memórias de un trovador, Cuba, 1990
Depestre Catony, Leonardo : Homenaje a la música popular cubana, Cuba, 1989
Fernández, Maria Antonia : Bailes populares cubanos, 1976
Feijóo, Samuel : El son cubano poesia general, Cuba, 1986
Flores, Juan : Cortijo′s Revenge ″Centro″, Center for Cuban Studies, 1991
Furé, Rogelio Martinez : Folklore Another Revolutionary Stuggle ″Canto Libre″, Center for Cuban Studies, 1974
Gadles Mikowsky, Solomón : Ignacio Cervantes y la danza en Cuba, Cuba, 1988
Galán, Natalio : Cuba y sus sones, Spain, 1983
Grenet, Emilio : Música popular cubana, 1939.
: Música popular cubana, Cuba, 1939
Howard, Joseph : Drums in the Americas, 1967
Instrumentos de la Música Folclórico-Popular de Cuba ( Centro de Investigación y Desarrrollo de la Música Cubana, ′97 [or CIDMUC].
Jaramillo O, Luis Felipe : Música tropical y salsa en Colombia, 1992.
Lapique Becali, Zoila : Música colonial cubana, Tomo 1, Cuba, 1979
Leonardo Padura Fuente : Los Rostros de la Salsa
León, Argeliers : Del canto y el tiempo, Cuba, 1984
: Música folklórica cubana, Cuba, 1964
Linares, Maria Teresa : La música y el pueblo, Cuba, 1974
: Introducción a Cuba la música popular, Cuba, 1970
Martinez, Orlando : Ernesto Lecuona, Cuba, 1989
Mayra A Martinez′s : Cubanos en la Musica
Morales, Guillermo Abadia : Compendio General de Folklore Colombiano, Colombia, 1983
Nketia, JH, Kwabena : The music of Africa, NY, 1974
Orovio, Helio : Diccionario de la música cubana, Cuba, 1981
Orozco, Roman : CubaSanta
Ortiz, Fernando : la africania de la música folklórica cubana, Cuba, 1965
: La música afrocubana, Cuba, 1974
: Los bailes y el teatro de los negros en el folklore de Cuba, Cuba, 1951
:Los negros esclavos, Cuba, 1987
: Nuevo catauro de cubanismos, Cuba, 1985
Pérez Fernández, Rolando : La música afromestiza mexicana, México, 1990
Pérez Rodriguez, Nancy : El carnaval Santiaguero, Tomo 1 & 2, Cuba, 1988
Pérez Sanjurjo, Elena : Historia de la música, 1986
Radames, Giro : Panorama de la Musica Popular Cubano
Rondón, César Miguel : El libro de la salsa, Caracus, Venezuela, 1980
Salazar, Rafael : La Salsa : Voz del Tiempo
Steward, Sue : Musica
Thompson , Robert Farris : Flash of the Spirit
Valdés, Olga Fernández : A pura guitarra y tambor, Cuba, 1984
Velez, Maria Teresa : Drumming for the Gods
Vinueza, Maria Elena : Presencia Arará en la música folklórica de Matanzas, Cuba, 1988
Wippler, Migene González : SanterÃa : NY, 1975
( Copyright photo by Música Mundana, Spain )
